Human experimentation Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human experimentation - Term Paper Example The actual collective and bottom-line benefit to society would be difficult to quantify. According to Goski (2011), â€Å"science-based medicine depends upon human experimentation†¦without human testing, they will never know if the end results of all that elegant science will actually do what it is intended to do and to make real human patients better. They will never know if the fruits of all that labor will actually cure disease. However, it is in human experimentation where the ethics of science most tend to clash with the mechanisms of science† (Goski, 2011, par. 1). Theoretically, scholars would have wanted to assert that human experimentation can be justified when greater good of society is at stake. This is actually the reason why several guidelines have been earmarked to establish rules that aim to adhere to ethical, moral, and legal standards with regards to using humans in experimentation (Kalechofsky, n.d.). The work of Ivy (1948), later known as the Nuremurg Code, explicitly stipuated guidelines in terms of observing quality of experiments, as well as the people conducting the experiments; and needed safeguards: Safeguards: (5) No experiment should risk death or disabling injury, "except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects;" (6) risk should never exceed the importance of the problem to be solved; (9, 10) experiment should be designed to be stopped at any point by: a) scientists if continuation is judged "liable to result in bringing disability or death to experimental subject; or b) by the human subject† (Ivy, 1948, pp. 1-5; cited in Kalechofsky, n.d.). From these guidelines, it could be deduced that the emphasis on the goal or outcome supposedly serving a utilitarian precept was most evident. In contemporary times, the need for informed consent has been stressed; but the controversial nature of potential

Jay Gatsby-Pathetic or Romantic Essay Example for Free

Jay Gatsby-Pathetic or Romantic Essay Jay Gatsby, undoubtedly the most love-stricken character in The Great Gatsby, has shown moments of both hopeless romanticism and over-obsessiveness. He has based the past five years on a woman whom he has met only once and might never meet again. His unrealistic dream of someday courting this â€Å"golden girl† has clouded his mind and made him act only in pursuit of this fantasy. Jay Gatsby is a pathetic character because he allowed himself to be consumed by his illusion that he and Daisy might ever end up together. â€Å"Gatsby bought that house so that Daisy would be just across the bay. † A stalker is defined as a person who follows or observes a person persistently, especially out of obsession or derangement, Jay Gatsbys’ â€Å"scrapbook† with â€Å" a lot of clippings† and pictures about Daisy shows that he has been following, and keeping track of, her movements for quite some time. At this point in the story, the question of intent might come into play, a person who favored Gatsby as a romantic can argue that perhaps he meant to give the scrapbook as a gift to Daisy when he saw her again, however, there is also a more menacing interpretation of this event, a man sitting in his living room feverishly hunting through newspapers and magazines for a glimpse of, or a story about, his prey. His â€Å"collection† truly shows the depravity and desperation of a pathetic man. Resorting to an attempt at bribery to get what he wants is another way for Gatsby to show that there is no limit to what he would do to meet Daisy again. Again, the argument could be made that Gatsby was simply trying to help a friend, yet if Nick did not have something he coveted, contact with Daisy, Gatsby never would have offered to help Nick â€Å"pick up a nice bit of money†. Nick may have denied Gatsbys’ help, but he did set up a meeting between Daisy and Gatsby. At Nicks’ house, before Daisy’s’ arrival, Gatsby is in a fervor trying to make the house acceptable for the meeting. Perhaps this was an attempt to seem worthy of her attention but more likely, this was Gatsby trying to look more important than he actually is, as was his flashy introduction to his home. Trying too hard to impress someone is definitely a pathetic act. â€Å"I know of nothing more despicable and pathetic than a man who devotes all the hours of the waking day to the making of money for moneys sake. † John D. Rockefeller. The same could be said about a person who devotes five years of his life on a longshot. His dream is a longshot because in order for it to work, Daisy must be unhappy with her marriage enough to want to give up a life of luxury for a life of love. While she flirts with Gatsby, she is just doing it to get back at Tom for having an affair. While she may appear to be discontent with her marriage, she would never truly want to give up living in the lap of luxury. Everything Gatsby did in the past five years was based on the dream that he and Daisy would be together, a romantic gesture but in the end a pathetic decision for a pathetic man.

Compaction for Sustainability: Advantages and Disadvantages

Compaction for Sustainability: Advantages and Disadvantages In developed countries, sustainable development has become increasingly important due to increased public awareness and pressure to meet demand from population growth. Urban Form is defined by (RTPI, 2015) as Physical characteristics that make up built-up areas, such as shape, size and density. It can be classified into four categories: Centralisation, Decentralisation, Concentration and Sprawl(Holden, 2004). Compaction (Centralisation and concentration) has been an EU policy since 1992 hence most European cities are densely populated. The aim is to develop sustainability which is defined by the Brundtland Commission as Meeting the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. This can be considered from four dimensions: Economic, Social, Natural and Political (UNESCO, 2010). The essay will first focus on the advantages and disadvantages of compaction in relation to different dimensions of sustainability, then focus on alternativ e forms. Finally, concluding the best option and consider future challenges. Compaction will benefit cities economically due to the agglomeration effect where the concentration of firms allow them to benefit from the economies of scale hence reducing the cost of operation and the infrastructure cost. Also, it encourages more specialisation as higher density has higher demand which allows more division of labour (Tejvan, 2012). This means the population would have access to a wider range of services and job opportunities, hence more likely to receive a more reliable income and become economically sustainable. A compact city will make public transport more attractive as there is a higher demand and usage which allow prices to be more affordable and higher frequency services to be run. This will increase accessibility which allows access to more job opportunities and essential services (RTPI, 2015). Socially, more people living closer together means that there is a higher chance that people are meeting with each other and communicate hence the chance of social exclusion is reduced and allow accumulation of social capital (Bramley et al., 2009).However, results from the survey suggest that medium density (Terraced Housing) is the best for social interaction. A higher density will have a negative effect. Compact living encourages mixed land use hence people would have easier access to services and job opportunities which will increase the quality of life and improve social sustainability. Finally, with reduced traffic volume as car ownership reduces, safety for pedestrians has increased especially with pedestrianisation schemes of centres making them vibrant again. Urban sprawl has been the strategy in most UK cities between the 1970s and 90s with the focus on out of town development (Williams, 2014). As economic and business growth contradicts with environmental sustainability, therefore activities have to be regulated by the government through legislation and documents such as Planning Policy Guidance (PPG). The three main arguments of environmental sustainability are related to land use, energy use and air quality. Land use will reduce by increasing density through building on brownfield sites so the countryside is protected. In 1947, the Green Belt is introduced as part of the Town and Country Planning Act and PPG2 which allows local authorities to set areas where development is prohibited on the outskirt of towns and cities. By 2010, around 13% of land in England is Green Belt (Communities and Local Government, 2010). Another supportive reason is the air quality will improve because of compaction mainly due to reduced car ownership as people will travel less with services close to where they live and work. Energy cost and consumption are estimated to be reduced as a result of denser living. However, there are a lot of argument and findings which suggest the benefit of compaction is over-emphasised. Because of the green belt, house prices have been unaffordable for many younger generation and lower income household. According to Halifax Bank since 1983, UK house prices has risen by 101% and 124% in London after taking into account of inflation (The Investor, 2012). The pressure to build more homes can be seen through the increase in approved planning permission to build on the green belt which rises from 2300 in 2009-10 to 12,000 in 2014-15 (Booth, 2017). The increase in house prices means that houses are segregated by income. Gentrification in the city centre can be seen in most UK cities where new houses are targeted for investors or the young affluent. People with lower income are forced to live in terrace housing outside of the city which are deprived and highly segregated by ethnic minorities which are both economically and socially unsustainable. The Green Belt als o force development to occur outside it hence increasing urban sprawl(Mace et al., 2016). For example, a lot of people commute from areas such as Redhill and Horsham which are just outside the Metropolitan Green Belt. This is not good in terms of reducing land use. Finally, government focus on compaction means that rural areas are left isolated as investment focus on towns and cities(Frey, 2003). Many villages lack basic services such as post office as more people move into cities, there is not enough demand to keep them operating. Compaction is also associated with an increase in stress level which will lead to poorer social ties in communities. The ease of access to shops and services means that time spent in the community is reduced and poorer safety perception due to distrust of neighbours and presence of more people. Hence (Bramley et al., 2009) found that residential satisfaction is low in compacted areas which is not socially sustainable. As the land value increases in the city centre, this means the availability of green spaces is at a premium hence environmental quality will decline as most areas will be concrete. Although congestion is reduced is surrounding area, traffic volume in the centre actually increases which means air quality in the city centre is worse and increase chances of respiratory disease (Echenique et al., 2012). Melia et al (2011) suggest the idea of paradox of intensification where doubling the density does not reduce the number of trips by half. For example, Gordon (1997) cited in Melia et al (2011) found that in England that doubling densities only leads to 7% decrease in miles travel to work. This is mainly due to the population increase in the area.Studies have found that compaction might not lead to a reduction in energy use. (Heinonen et al., 2011) found that in Helsinki that CO2 emission is higher in downtown area than suburbs. They conclude that this is due to a higher standard of living in the downtown and the increase in emissions is more than the effect of compaction. These examples suggest the environmental benefits of compaction could be overstated. An alternative urban form which can be considered is polycentric cities which are decentralised but concentrated. This is evolved from Howards idea of the Satellite or Garden City in the early 1900s where a centre city is surrounded by satellite cities which carry around 32,000 people each hence a medium density. These satellite cities are self-contained with services and workplace and connected with other cities by Rail links. It focuses on the symbiotic relationship with nature hence trying to achieve sustainability (Frey, 2003). It is very idealistic and only 2 garden cities were built in the UK which was not very successful as density is too low for self-sufficient economy and services. Another form is the Transit Oriented Development (Calthorpe, 1993 cited in Frey, 2003) which based development around a centre with public transport Hub which has rail links with a major city. The centre is an area for the community with low rise apartments in centre and terraces further away. Parks will be located further away from the centre. This type of development is also known as corridor growth hence a controlled way to limit urban sprawl and Copenhagens Finger Plan is a good example (see Figure 1). People can live in medium densities towns which have shops and services near the hub and have easy access to the countryside hence a sustainable form. However, the high house prices in the centre is still problematic. According to a study of 114 European Cities by Zoeteman et al (2016). It found that sustainability score of city improves up to 2 million inhabitants mainly due to economic sustainability. In cities that are larger than 250,000 people, ecological and social capital reduce. It concludes the ideal size of 100,000-250,000 inhabitants which is a medium density. Therefore, it seems that future growth strategy should focus on developing polycentric medium density cities which is well connected by Public Transport along with technological innovation to reduce environmental pollution. This is a compromise between a centralised compact city and dispersed development. Current research shows that there is no consensus on whether compaction will benefit socially and environmentally. However, as most governments currently prioritise economic growth, the benefit of agglomeration means that compaction will likely to continue. Ideally, a polycentric network of medium density cities will achieve all forms of sustainability the best. Booth, R. 2017. English green belt set to get 360,000 new homes. The Guardian. [Online].15 January. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/15/homes-planned-for-green-belt-have-risen-to-360000-in-england Bramley, G., Dempsey, N., Power, S., Brown, C. and Watkins, D. 2009. Social Sustainability and Urban Form: Evidence from Five British Cities. Environment and Planning A. 41(9), pp.2125-2142. Brundtland Commission. 1987. Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on environment and Development. [Online]. No Place: UN. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf Communities and Local Government. 2010. Local Planning Authority Green Belt Statistics: England 2009/10. [Online]. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120919132719/http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/corporate/statistics/lagreenbelt2009 Echenique, M.H., Hargreaves, A.J., Mitchell, G. and Namdeo, A. 2012. Growing cities sustainably: does urban form really matter? Journal of the American Planning Association. 78(2), pp.121-137. Frey, H. 2003. Designing the city: towards a more sustainable urban form. London: Routledge. Heinonen, J., Kyrà ¶, R. and Junnila, S. 2011. Dense downtown living more carbon intense due to higher consumption: a case study of Helsinki. Environmental Research Letters. 6(3), p034034. Holden, E. 2004. Ecological footprints and sustainable urban form. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment. 19(1), pp.91-109. Knowles, R.D. 2012. Transit Oriented Development in Copenhagen, Denmark: from the Finger Plan to Ørestad. Journal of Transport Geography. 22, pp.251-261. Mace, A., Blanc, F., Gordon, I. and Scanlon, K. 2016. A 21st Century Metropolitan Green Belt. [Online]. No place: LSE. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://www.lse.ac.uk/geographyAndEnvironment/research/GreenBelt/Docs/Green%20Belt%20Report.pdf Melia, S., Parkhurst, G. and Barton, H. 2011. The paradox of intensification. Transport Policy. 18(1), pp.46-52. RTPI. 2015. Urban form and Sustainability. [Online]. No Place: Royal Town Planning Institute. [Accessed 21 March 2017]. Available from: http://www.rtpi.org.uk/media/1360966/urban%20form%20and%20sustainability%20briefing.pdf Tejvan, P. 2012. Agglomeration economies. [Online]. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/glossary/agglomeration-economies/ The Investor. 2012. Historical UK house prices. [Online]. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://monevator.com/historical-uk-house-prices/ UNESCO. 2010. Four Dimensions of Sustainable Development. [Online]. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: http://www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/mods/theme_a/popups/mod04t01s03.html Williams, K. 2014. Urban form and infrstructure: a morphological review. [Online]. London: Government Office for Science. [Accessed 22 March 2017]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/324161/14-808-urban-form-and-infrastructure-1.pdf Zoeteman, K.B., Mulder, R., Smeets, R. and Wentink, C. 2016. Towards Sustainable EU Cities: A Quantitative Benchmark Study of 114 European and 31 Dutch Cities. [Online]. Tilburg: Telos. Available from: https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/13611754/16142_85537_UvT_EU_Study_3_gecorrigeerd_def_RM_1_.pdf

The Laser Essay -- essays research papers

The Laser Before we can learn about the laser we need to know a little bit about light (since that is what a laser is made of). Light from our sun, or from an electric bulb, is called white light. It is really a mixture of all the different colours of light. The colours range from violet, indigo, and blue, to green, yellow, orange, and red. These make up the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light is made up of particles, called PHOTONS, which travel in waves. The difference in the colour depends on the wavelength of the light. Violet light has the shortest wavelength while red has the longest. There are other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum which includes infra-red, radar, television radio and micro- waves (past red on the spectrum), and on the other end of the spectrum are the other invisible radiations, ultra- violet, X rays, micro waves and gamma rays. The wavelength of the light is important to the subject of the laser. A laser is made up of COHERENT light, a special kind of light in which the wavelengths of the light are all the same length, and the crests of these waves are all lined up, or in PHASE. The word Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. What does that mean? Basically a laser is a device which produces and then amplifies light waves and concentrates them into an intense penetrating beam. The principles of the laser (and it's cousin the maser) were established long before these devices were succes...

Shakespeare Relevance Today

?English Discussion on Shakespeare „What point is there in studying a dramatist who lived 400 years ago? † Shakespeare is a British dramatist, lyric poet and actor who lived from 1564-1616. Today it’s the 6th of september 2010. Shakespeare died almost 400 years ago. So why should people still keep busy with someone who lived such a long time ago? Why is Shakespeare still studied today? Many pupils would answer: Because teachers love to bore us. How could someone who lived 400 years ago write about anything which is from current interest?I think, even if Shakespeare doesn’t live anymore, he has a certain influence on the present. Weather in his own works (Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night’s dream, Hamlet, Macbeth) film adaptions of his works, theatre plays or in our everyday life- Shakespeare is everywhere. Besides Shakespeare is not just any dramatist. He is the dramatist who shaped the English language and whose words are still used today. There are about 1700 words which Shakespeare used first in his works. Most of these words, for example â€Å"critical† or â€Å"bloody† are still used even in our everyday conversations.But it’s not only his words that are still used, there are even whole expressions just like â€Å"There is something in the wind† or â€Å"That’s Greek to me†. By the way Shakespeare is also the most quoted dramatist. Who doesn’t know the quotes â€Å"To be or not to be† (Hamlet) or â€Å"A horse, a horse, a kingdom for a horse†? (Richard III) He is the dramatist whose language and expressions still fascinate people. Especially nowadays, in the century of language decline, Shakespeare’s well-formulated rhymes, seasoned with word games and his words, full of meaning and truth can inspire people.His sonnets are of such a beauty, that it’s a joy to read them. It seems like he didn’t only use the words- he brought them to life, jus t like his characters. When reading the book you can feel with them. His characters are failable, they do things because of reasons and motifs, which are still relevant today, just like love (Romeo and Juliet) or jealousy (Othello) He is the dramatist who wrote about topics which are universal and the dramatist who wrote about both the beauty of life and the ugliness of it.Certain situations which are given in his works could still happen today. Shakespeare’s probably most famous work â€Å"Romeo and Juliet† is for example about forbidden love because of hatred between two families. Today there are still reasons just like religion or nationalities why lovers can’t be together. In â€Å"A Midsummer night’s dream† Shakespeare describes the funny side of life that results from misunderstandings.I guess for every one of us there has already been a situation where it seemed like there are really elves who messed everything and left a love chaos. â€Å" The tragedy of Othello† shows us, what people do out of jealousy, and how easy it is to influence people. Shakespeare is the dramatist who understood the human mind very well. He was a connoisseur of human nature. Reading Shakespeare’s works and identifying with his characters can help us to develop a better understanding of human nature and a wider knowledge of the factors which influence human behaviour.Shakespeare was a genius and I think it’s important to motivate pupils to deal with him. There are not many pupils who would do that voluntarily but I think if you fade out the prejudice that the language is too difficult to understand or that teachers just want to bore us with Shakespeare it can be a pleasure to deal with his works. Just as Ben Jonson (british poet, 1572-1637) once said â€Å"He was not of an age, but for all time! † And I guess that’s right.

Chapter 12 Taxation and Income Distribution

Chapter 12 Taxation and Income Distribution I. Impact of taxes on income distribution hard to determine because of tax incidence II. Tax Incidence a. Who actually pays a tax b. Legal Incidence – who is legally responsible for paying a tax c. Economic Incidence – who actually pays the tax d. Example – tax of $1 is placed on $10 item how is income distribution affected i. Price stays at $10 – income of seller reduced ii. Prices rises to $11 – income of buyers reduced iii. Price rises to $10. 30 – buyers pay $. 30 and sellers pay $. 70 e.To the extent taxes affect quantity sold and produced, tax affects income of suppliers of inputs for the product. i. Example: tax on gasoline reduces gasoline consumption it reduces income of gasoline tanker truck owners and drivers. ii. May reduce the income of furnace manufactures by reducing the price of heating fuel. III. Tax Incidence Perspectives a. People pay taxes not corporations b. How to group people for purposes of tax incidence i. Often think of producers and consumers 1. But consumers are also producers and producers are also consumers 2. 0 of households own stock directly, others own stock indirectly ii. By income Rich, Middle Class, Poor 1. How do you define these categories? c. Tax affect both suppliers of inputs and consumers of a product. i. In practice tend to ignore one side and do analysis on the other 1. Tax in commodity ignore impacts on inputs 2. Tax on inputs, ignore impact on consumers d. Incidence depends on how prices are determined i. How taxes change prices determine who pays the taxes ii. Amount of time is important – more time more adjustment to taxes e. Tax incidence depends on how tax revenues are spend . Progressiveness of tax system i. Policy says tax system should be progressive. ii. Higher income pay a higher percentage of taxes 1. Usually measured as increase in average tax rate taxes/income 2. Exemptions, deductions and marginal rate structur e affect average tax rate iii. 2 measures 1. Percentage change in tax rate divided by percentage change in income 2. Percentage change in taxes divided by the percentage change in income 3. Measures can produce different results IV. Partial Equilibrium Models of Tax Incidence a. Analyzes impact of tax on the market in which tax was imposed b.Ignore impact of market change on other markets i. Appropriate if tax is small ii. Appropriate if market is small iii. Otherwise need general equilibrium analysis c. Tax incidence of a unit tax – tax per unit of the good i. Legal incidence on buyers – figure 12. 2 1. Tax reduces the demand curve for the product from the supplier’s point of view since at each price the consumer buys less of the product. [pic] ii. Legal incidence on seller – figure 12. 3 1. Tax reduces the supply curve for the product from the consumer’s point of view since at each price the suppliers supply less of the product pic] iii. Economic incidence is independent of legal incidence 1. Arrive at same Price, Quantity, and tax split regardless of whether tax is on producer or supplier. a. Sales tax example iv. Tax incidence depends on relative elasticities of demand and supply v. Example Qd = 1,000 – 5P and Qs = 4P – 80 Tax $45 per unit [pic] [pic] d. Tax incidence of an ad valorem tax – tax per unit of the good i. A percentage tax rather than a unit tax ii. Sales tax as compared to gasoline tax iii. More difficult to calculate but shifts demand as shown in figure 12. V. Payroll Tax Controversy a. Legal incidence 7. 5% paid by employer and 7. 5% paid by employee b. Statutory distinction between employer and employee is irrelevant c. Economic split depends on elasticity of supply of labor d. Logical that the labor supply is fairly inelastic i. Household provides certain amount of labor regardless of wage ii. May not be true in long run VI. Tax on Capital a. Increasingly capital perfectly mobile b. M oved to where return is highest after adjusting for risk c. Rate of return on capital same everywhere in world d.No single country can make suppliers of capital bear any portion of a tax on capital VII. Taxes in markets with monopoly power a. Impact of taxes same as in competitive markets b. Consumers and monopolist share tax depending on the elasticity of demand c. Figure 12. 10 VIII. Taxes in oligopoly markets a. Impact of taxes difficult to determine b. Price increase resulting from reduction in output resulting from the tax may make a company more profitable IX. Tax on profits a. Tax on normal profits reduce investment because profit is return on capital and risk b.Tax on economic profits born entirely by company with change in behavior c. Seemly ideal tax but not very operational X. Tax Incidence and Capitalization a. Tax increase on real estate is capitalized into PV of property b. Borne entirely owners at time tax is levied c. May be reimbursed if public expenditures increase property values XI. General Equilibrium Models a. Read first paragraph P 271 b. Generally not operational [pic] ———————– Po Pg Pn Q0 Q1 Supply ConsumerDemand Supplier Perceived Demand Tax paid by Consumers Tax paid by SuppliersDeadweight Loss from Tax Consumer Losses and Producers losses Po Pg Pn Q0 Q1 Supply Demand Consumer Perceived Supply Tax paid by Consumers Tax paid by Suppliers Deadweight Loss Consumer Losses and Producer losses Deadweight Loss Consumer Losses and Producer losses Tax paid by Suppliers Tax paid by Consumers Consumer Perceived Supply Demand Supply 300 400 95 140 120 Deadweight Loss from Tax Consumer Losses and Producers losses Tax paid by Suppliers Tax paid by Consumers Supplier Perceived Demand ConsumerDemand Supply 300 400 95 20 200 120 140